THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

The Byzantine Empire

(The Byzantine Empire areas of control)

G - The Byzantine Empire is located between Eastern Europe nad the Middle East with extraneous regions located in North Africa and Southern Russia. The empire is surrounded by the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea, the Gulf of Cyprus, and the Caspian Sea. With its strategic location, the Byzantine Empire became a center of trade, commerce, and high culture. 

(Another photo of the Byzantine Empire. Distinguishes all the major trading cities that were under the Byzantine Control).

R - The religion of the Byzantines was Christianity. The Byzantines often viewed their Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ. Along with their beliefs, the Emperors built many elaborate, gigantic churches and places of worship. The Church of Constantinople became the richest and most influential center of Christianity during the Empires reign. (Located below is the Church of Constantinople).

 

A - The Byzantine's artwork was primarily religious based. More specifically, the art tried to translate the church's theological views into artistic pictures and interpretations. The art was spread throughout Europe, but had a major impact of influence in the Italian Renaissance. Along with art, the Byzantine architecture was solely based on religion as well. Like the Church of Constantinople, many other churches and places of worship were erected. Lastly, the Byzantine Empire wrote many stylistically, and culturally different pieces of literature. Drawing from four different cultural backgrounds, the Greek, the Christians, the Romans, and the more Oriental Eastern Eurasia elements, their literature reflected the aspects and many historical events. Coming from many different cultural groups, the Byzantines created two new types of writing. One being ecclesiastical, and the other being popular historical theology poetry. Of all the literature that was written, there are about two to three thousand volumes of writings, and a couple hundred volumes of secular poetry, history, science and pseudo-science. 

 (This is the most famous of the remaining mosaics from the Byzantine Empire. It is a representation of Jesus).

S - The Social Developments of the Byzantines were very religiously based. The population believed in certain rituals and prayers to further benefit people. 

P - The Byzantine Empire's politics were patriarchy based. The Emperor became the sole and absolute ruler, and his power was regarded from divine origin. Although the Byzantine's had a Senate, they possessed few to no legislative authority. Later in the 6th century, Court Officials were arranged in strict order to watch over and guide the emperor in his decision making. 

 (This is Constantine the Great. One of the many great Emperors of the Byzantine Empire).

E - The Byzantine economy was one of the greatest and most advanced in Eurasia at the time. The Byzantine Empire had most of the trading post cities under control. The cities were: Constantinople, Alexandria, and Tripoli. Among the many traded goods and services that were exchanged, the Byzantine's major income came from agriculture. The Byzantine's produced: wheat, vegetables, fruit, silk, and barley. 

 (Byzantine coins)

D - At the height of the Byzantine Empire, there was roughly 26 million inhabitants. 

I - The Intellectual Developments that occurred during the Byzantine Empire dealt with local humanistic concerns. The Byzantines wrote and expressed concerns about salvation, territorial disputes, the Black Death, lack of education outside of monasteries, and small-scale trade.

T - The Byzantines invented many new items. Dealing with architecture, the Cross-in-square was created. This was a certain design for churches, and the Church of Constantinople was built in this fashion. Another architectural invention was the Pendentive dome. This was a circular dome that was to be built on top of the Cross-in-square. Once again, this can be seen on the Church of Constantinople. Dealing with battle and warfare inventions, the Byzantines created the Counterweight trebuchet. This was a very powerful weapon described as a stone projector equipped with a windlass, and an apparatus required to launch projectiles. Along with the counterweight trebuchet, they also created the hand trebuchet. With close contact, the Byzantines invented Greek-fire, a fire that does not diminish with the addition of water, grenades, and flamethrowers (connected to the trebuchets.)

(This is a Byzantine counterweight trebuchet).

The Hebrew Era of the Second Temple

(600 B.C.E.- 70 C.E.)

(The Second Hebrew Temple recreation idea of what we think this building looked like).

G - The Second Hebrew Temple was built by the Hebrew People, and was located in the center of Jerusalem.

 (This picture is the map of Israel with Jerusalem labeled as a star).

R - The religious beliefs of the Hebrews was Judaism. The people believed in one almighty God (Adonai). Along with the beliefs of God, a famous Rabbi named Maimonides wrote a universally accepted list of Jewish beliefs. Of the thirteen items listed, some include: 

          1. God exists, and is the Creator.

       2. God is One and Unique.

       3. God is not Physical 

       4. God is Eternal.

       5. Prayer is to be only directed towards HaShem ( real translation: "The Name." Colloquially accepted as one of Adonai's other names).

       6. The words of the Prophet are true. 

       7. The prophecies of Moses are true; He was the Greatest Prophet.

       8. The Torah was given to Moses.

       9. There will be no other Torah.

     10. God knows the thoughts and beliefs of all.

     11. God rewards the Good, and punished the Wicked.

     12. The Messiah will come.

     13. The Dead will be Resurrected. 

 The Jewish values and beliefs are based on the teachings of the Torah, the Jewish bible. The Torah teaches people how to conduct their life, how to act, and how to experience life and death. The Torah contains 613 'mitzvot'(מצות), or commandments, of which each Jewish person must live and abide by. The Torah is made up of the Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Following the Torah, there is the Haftorah. The Haftorah is a book of selected Prophet readings, which is read on the Sabbath. 

 (This is a Jewish Star. The most iconic of symbols the Jewish religion has).

A - The arts of the Jewish people includes music, pottery, and architecture, etc... 

The Jewish music melodies have evolved tremendously throughout the course of the 4000 year time span. In some instances, Jewish music can be religious in nature, spiritual songs, or have further classifications in the Secular world of Judaism. The music history spans back to the beginning of the cantorial, and synagogal Temple melodies and rhythms from the Biblical times. Specifically to the Second Temple era, a regular canotrial orchestra consisted of ancient instruments such as the: 'uggav,' and a number of male singers, with one being the main Cantor. 

          Pottery of the Jewish people during the Second Temple era flourished greatly. The people began making more elaborately designed bowls, plates, cups, and ceremonial ceramic equipment. Artistic inspiration and influences came from the Phoenicians and Mycenaeans. (This photo is a bowl of a Jewish Hanukkiah.)

          The architecture during the Second Temple era was magnificent. For one, there was the Second Temple. The Second Temple was about 480 x 300m (about the size of six football fields put together). Each main wall of the temple is 5 meters thick with stones weighing from 2-100 tons each. There is no mortar between each individual stone. The fine maneuvering of the stones is incomprehensible given that today's modern technology cannot move such heavy stones. The height of each wall was about as tall as a 20 story building. King Herod, the one who ordered the building, compiled materials for the project for over eight years, and then had a workforce of over 10,000 men, plus an additional 1,500 specifically trained priests and holy men who were only permitted to work on the holiest parts of the temple itself. The construction was finished twenty years after its start. When finally completed, the magnificent creation, the temple could hold well over 200 thousand people within its walls. 

S - The social developments of the Jewish people during the Second Temple Era was very religiously based, and very humanistic based. The Jewish people believed in certain rituals and sacrifices or offerings for a specific time and occasion. In more detail, the Jewish people in the ancient times, and now still believe in the concept of 'G'milut Chasadim' (גמילות חסדימ), which are the acts of loving kindness. These actions include Tzedakah (צדקה), the giving of money or support to others, and the commandments of 'mitzvot' (מצות). 

P - The politics of The Second Temple Era consisted of a monarchy. King Herod reigned at the time, but as well as his monarchy, all of the political leaders took inspiration for their reign from the highest temple priests. (A high priest of the Second Temple).

E - The economy of Ancient Israel during the Second Temple Era consisted of labor, crafts, trade, and a coinage system. Field labor and craft production was a very important economical necessity. The Israelites traded these items more than any other around the world. The Israelite traders played a key role in shaping the first international sea trade in the Mediterranean. The traders traveled between Egypt, Cyprus, and Greece. The imports from Greece and ideas were very influential in shaping Ancient Israel. The olive tree and its oil are very significant for example. Along with another influence, the Second Temple portrays very Greek-like aspects. The immensely large pillars that stand are inspired from the Greeks' Doric and Ionic columns. 

D - The exact demography of the Hebrews during the Second Temple Era is sparse, but it is said that there were as many as fifteen different surrounding cities with well over 100,000 inhabitants each. It is reported that during several different reigns, the population ranged from 650,000 up to 5,000,000 inhabitants. The highest population was when King David reigned. These census totals are not exact, but do give a close insight on how large the Jewish community was during Ancient Israel. 

I - Although there were not many intellectual developments during the Second Temple Era, they were nonetheless the very important. Advances of knowledge were achieved in architecture, and travel. Historians and architects are still in awe of the magnificent creation of the Temple. Today we still do not fully understand how the Temple was exactly built, and how the people were able to lift and place the blocks in without the slightest of error. Along with architecture, advancements is travel also occurred. The people began to make more elaborate ships and vessels in which they could travel and trade all over Europe and Africa. (This is a picture of some of the ancient trade routes.)

T - Technology of the Second Temple Era was very similar to the other technology present in the world. The Israelites had technology of transportation, construction, entertainment, arts and ceramics, and of agriculture. The Israelites had many of the same modern work occupations. For example, agriculture. The Hebrews farmed and supplied surpluses of food for their people, and as well for trade and commerce. Along with the agricultural technology, such as plows, and human-animal wagons, the Hebrews also had the earliest of fire kilns. These kilns were basically gigantic enclosed fire pits in which the ceramics sat and solidified. People still today do not know the exact means of how the Temples were built, but with such an elaborate lay out, and immense size, the Hebrews must have had an advanced means of technology in which they could use to build such creations. 

(This picture was taken of my face carved in stone. Thanks Google Images).

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

Hello,  I was born in 356 B.C.E. I was the king of Macedon, and while I was growing up, I studied under and was tutored by Aristotle. While being tutored and following the throne of my father, Philip II of Macedon, I created one of the largest empires the ancient world has ever known. I stretched my empire's reign all the way from the Ionian Sea, to the Himalayas. As the king, I was undefeated in battle, and am still today considered one of history's most successful commanders.